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Abstract:

Abstract The Lunar Thermal Mapper (LTM) instrument is a UK Space Agency funded infrared radiometer designed and built for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Lunar Trailblazer mission launched in February 2025. LTM is a pushbroom imaging filter radiometer with 15 channels that cover the wavelength range from 6.25 to 100 μm with a 40–70 m/pixel ground sampling. Lunar Trailblazer's mission is to understand the form, abundance and distribution of water across the lunar surface. LTM provides an independent measure of temperature to investigate thermal effects on water's mapped distribution as well as an independent measure of surface mineralogy. The LTM instrument's 15 infrared channels include four broadband temperature sensing channels (6.25–12.5, 12.5–25, 25–50 and 50–100 μm) plus 11 additional narrow band (∼40 cm −1 ) filters from ∼7–10 μm to map and discriminate silicate composition. We review the LTM design and calibration campaign at the University of Oxford's Space Instrumentation facility and show that the instrument has sensitivity from 400 K with a Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference of <0.1 K to <1 K at 110 K for typical integration times (e.g., 30 Hz readout) from a nominal 70–130 km lunar orbit design altitude. Plain Language Summary This paper describes the Lunar Thermal Mapper instrument for NASA's Lunar Trailblazer mission. Lunar Thermal Mapper is a thermal imaging system designed to sense the temperature and composition of the lunar surface using the thermal infrared. By sensing the temperature environment of the Moon, Lunar Thermal Mapper supports the Trailblazer's mission to map water on the lunar surface. Key Points The Lunar Thermal Mapper (LTM) instrument will measure thermal infrared radiation from the Moon across from 400 K to <110 K The LTM instrument completed assembly, testing, calibration and integration on the Lunar Trailblazer spacecraft The LTM instrument demonstrated sensitives of <0.1 K at 400 K and <1 K at 110 K during ground testing and calibration

Abstract:

Hot Jupiters have temperature gradients of several hundreds of degrees between their permanent daysides and nightsides. Such a strong gradient creates winds with speeds of the order of kilometres per second, which advect chemical species over the whole planet. When this transport is faster than the time needed for chemical species to react, it holds back the chemical equilibration of the atmospheric carbon reservoir, which would otherwise transition from CO on the dayside to CH4 on the nightside. Direct evidence of this process has remained elusive so far, as it is often degenerate with other atmospheric processes, such as vertical mixing or non-stellar elemental abundances. Here we present observational evidence for such a fast day-to-night horizontal transport of chemical species by observing the full 18-h orbit of the exoplanet NGTS-10A b with the JWST/NIRSpec instrument. We show that the carbon chemistry is dominated by CO in both the dayside and the nightside of the planet, with a strong depletion of CH4 on the nightside compared with expectations from chemical equilibrium. By measuring the atmospheric abundances of all the main carbon and oxygen molecules, we further demonstrate that the lack of CH4 on the planetary nightside cannot be attributed to non-solar elemental abundances or to vertical mixing mechanisms and must, therefore, be due to fast horizontal transport. Our study shows the fundamental role that atmospheric transport plays in shaping the distribution of chemical species on exoplanet atmospheres.

Abstract:

Abstract In the aftermath of the Moon-forming giant impact, the Hadean Earth’s mantle and surface crystallized from a global magma ocean blanketed by a dense volatile-rich atmosphere. While prior studies have explored the thermal evolution of such early-Earth scenarios under idealized, oxidizing conditions, the potential feedback between tidal heating driven by Earth–Moon orbital forcing and variable redox scenarios have not yet been explored in detail. We investigate whether tidal heating could have prolonged this early magma ocean phase and supported quasi-steady state epochs of global radiative equilibrium: periods of thermal balance between outgoing radiation and interior heat flux. Using the PROTEUS simulation framework, we simulate Earth’s early evolution under a range of plausible tidal power densities, oxygen fugacities, and volatile inventories. Our results suggest that feedback between tidal heating and atmospheric forcing can induce substantial variation in magma ocean lifetimes, from ∼30 Myr up to ∼500 Myr, sensitive to interior redox conditions. Global radiative equilibrium epochs commonly arise across this range, lasting from ∼2 to ∼320 Myr, and typically occur from 24 Myr after the Moon-forming impact. Under oxidizing conditions, late-stage H 2 O degassing promotes melt retention and sustained heating due to its significant contribution to greenhouse forcing. Weak tides increase the atmospheric abundance of H 2 S and NH 3 and deplete CO. Therefore, the feedback between tides and atmospheric forcing induces a disequilibrium signature in the magma ocean atmosphere.

Abstract:

Abstract Small, low-density exoplanets are sculpted by strong stellar irradiation, but their primordial compositions and subsequent evolution are still unknown. Two often-considered scenarios hold that they formed with rocky interiors and H 2 –He atmospheres (‘gas dwarfs’) or alternatively with bulk compositions dominated by H 2 O phases (‘water worlds’). Here we constrain the possible range of evolutionary histories linking the birth conditions of low-density super-Earth L 98-59 d to recent observations using a coupled atmosphere–interior evolutionary model. We find that the observations can be explained by in situ photochemical production of SO 2 in an H 2 background, indicative of a chemically reducing mantle and substantial (>1.8 mass%) early sulfur and hydrogen content, inconsistent with both the gas-dwarf and water-world scenarios. L 98-59 d’s interior comprises a permanent magma ocean, allowing long-term retention of volatiles within its mantle over billions of years, consistent with California-Kepler Survey trends. Our analysis reveals an evolutionary pathway in which planets host volatile-rich atmospheres sustained by long-term magma-ocean degassing, shaped by secular cooling, atmospheric erosion and photochemistry. Internal and environmental processes contribute to the observed diversity of super-Earth and sub-Neptune exoplanets.

Abstract:

The circulation of the Earth’s atmosphere and those of many other planets is dominated by turbulent interactions in a baroclinically unstable, rotating, stratified flow. Even for the Earth, which has been well observed for many years, the energy spectrum and complex properties of the anisotropic and inhomogeneous turbulent cascades of energy and enstrophy remain poorly understood and difficult to model accurately. Here we measure geostrophic turbulence energised by baroclinic instability in a rotating, differentially heated fluid annulus in the laboratory, which is bounded by convectively-driven warm and cold flows at the outer and inner boundaries, respectively (see Fig. 1a). Horizontal velocity fields (Fig. 1b-c) are obtained via particle image velocimetry of neutrally buoyant particles suspended in the flow, while the temperature structure is sampled using a vertical array of thermocouples located in the middle of the channel. The horizontal kinetic energy spectra exhibit a wavenumber range at relatively large length scales which scales as k−3, where k denotes the horizontal wavenumber (see Fig. 1d-e). Moreover, the spectral amplitude is found to correlate with the square of the Brunt–Vaisala frequency N at the same heights as the velocity measurements. The observed turbulent state exhibits a net forward enstrophy cascade across all scales, along with bidirectional kinetic energy transfer, which is indicated by a reversal in the sign of the spectral energy flux. The change of sign of the kinetic energy cascade occurs at a scale proportional to the internal Rossby radius of deformation Ld. These findings highlight the role of baroclinic instability in shaping the distribution of energy across scales with implications for synoptic- and meso-scale turbulent flows in the atmospheres of the Earth and other terrestrial planet atmospheres and oceans.FIG. 1. (a) Schematic plot of the convective tank. Snapshots of vorticity ζ for thermal Rossby number RoT = 5.41 (b) and RoT = 0.03 (c). On the scale bar, Lid = 2.4 cm and Liid = 22.6 cm are the Rossby radius of deformation for (c) and (b), respectively. (d) Kinetic energy spectra, E(k), for various values of RoT. The arrow indicates the wave number kp corresponding to the peak of E(k) when RoT = 0.03. Inset: radial profiles of temporal- and zonal-averaged azimuthal velocity, Uθ. (e) Kinetic energy spectra compensated by k−3 and normalised by N2 versus LRk. The dashed line indicates the plateau segment for LRk ∈ [2, 10] and has a magnitude of ∼ 0.5. Data are for height h = 0.18 m.